Monday, April 29, 2024

Structural engineering

Structural engineering[edit]

Burj Khalifa animation of construction process

Structural engineering is concerned with the structural design and structural analysis of buildings, bridges, towers, flyovers (overpasses), tunnels, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea, aerostructure and other structures. This involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise within that structure due to those loads, and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those loads. The loads can be self weight of the structures, other dead load, live loads, moving (wheel) load, wind load, earthquake load, load from temperature change etc. The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill the function they are designed for (to be serviceable). Due to the nature of some loading conditions, sub-disciplines within structural engineering have emerged, including wind engineering and earthquake engineering.[29]

Design considerations will include strength, stiffness, and stability of the structure when subjected to loads which may be static, such as furniture or self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads, or transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact. Other considerations include cost, constructibility, safety, aesthetics and sustainability.
Surveying[edit]
Main articles: Surveying and Construction surveying

Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that occur on or near the surface of the Earth. Surveying equipment such as levels and theodolites are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerisation, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have to a large extent supplanted traditional instruments. Data collected by survey measurement is converted into a graphical representation of the Earth's surface in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a structure must be sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures.

Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and mapping, as well as geographic information systems. Surveyors also lay out the routes of railways, tramway tracks, highways, roads, pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructure, such as harbors, before construction.Land surveying

In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a separate and distinct profession. Land surveyors are not considered to be engineers, and have their own professional associations and licensing requirements. The services of a licensed land surveyor are generally required for boundary surveys (to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision plans (a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land, with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicate the creation of new boundary lines and roads), both of which are generally referred to as Cadastral surveying.

Construction surveying

Construction surveying is generally performed by specialized technicians. Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan does not have legal status. Construction surveyors perform the following tasks:Surveying existing conditions of the future work site, including topography, existing buildings and infrastructure, and underground infrastructure when possible;
"lay-out" or "setting-out": placing reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings;
Verifying the location of structures during construction;
As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the construction project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the specifications set on plans.
Transportation engineering[edit]
Main article: Transportation engineering

Transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes streets, canals, highways, rail systems, airports, ports, and mass transit. It includes areas such as transportation design, transportation planning, traffic engineering, some aspects of urban engineering, queueing theory, pavement engineering, Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), and infrastructure management.

Municipal or urban engineering[edit]

Municipal engineering is concerned with municipal infrastructure. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewers, street lighting, municipal solid waste management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works (salt, sand, etc.), public parks and cycling infrastructure. In the case of underground utility networks, it may also include the civil portion (conduits and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications services. It can also include the optimization of waste collection and bus service networks. Some of these disciplines overlap with other civil engineering specialties, however municipal engineering focuses on the coordination of these infrastructure networks and services, as they are often built simultaneously, and managed by the same municipal authority. Municipal engineers may also design the site civil works for large buildings, industrial plants or campuses (i.e. access roads, parking lots, potable water supply, treatment or pretreatment of waste water, site drainage, etc.)

Water resources engineering[edit]

Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a natural resource). As a discipline it therefore combines elements of hydrology, environmental science, meteorology, conservation, and resource management. This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both underground (aquifers) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or out of a facility. Although the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers.

Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, water supply network, drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, storm sewers), and canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others.

Civil engineering systems[edit]

Civil engineering systems is a discipline that promotes the use of systems thinking to manage complexity and change in civil engineering within its wider public context. It posits that the proper development of civil engineering infrastructure requires a holistic, coherent understanding of the relationships between all of the important factors that contribute to successful projects while at the same time emphasizing the importance of attention to technical detail. Its purpose is to help integrate the entire civil engineering project life cycle from conception, through planning, designing, making, operating to decommissioning.^[30]^[31]

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Tuesday, April 23, 2024

Transportation network

Modeling the effect of autonomous vehicles (AVs) on the accessibility of the transportation network

Abstract

The utilization of autonomous vehicles (AVs) has emerged as a pivotal factor in addressing the rising costs and safety concerns associated with modern travel. As technology advances and traffic challenges intensify, enhancing accessibility stands out as a critical goal for transportation experts. Accessibility, constrained by factors like travel time, underscores the increasing need for AVs to mitigate these limitations. This study aimed to model the influence of AVs on the accessibility index within transportation networks and discuss system optimization based on user equilibrium (UE) and system optimum (SO) outcomes. The research conducted numerical analysis employing the Hearn network as a fundamental system to validate a mixed assignment model and ascertain baseline accessibility. Additionally, the Sioux Falls network, a medium-sized network, was employed for analysis. A hybrid heuristic assignment algorithm was introduced, concurrently assigning different percentages of AV presence alongside the remaining non-AV percentage in three distinct scenarios. These scenarios ranged from 0 to 100% AV presence: the first scenario maintained constant network capacity, the second scenario adjusted network capacity based on AV presence, and the third scenario incorporated capacity adjustments in the assignment stage. In all three scenarios, network accessibility was evaluated using gravity and accessibility index methods derived from the hybrid assignment model output. The findings demonstrated that as the percentage of AVs increased, accessibility improved in both Hearn and Sioux Falls networks across all scenarios. The second and third scenarios exhibited higher accessibility increases compared to the first, attributable to augmented capacity resulting from increased AV presence. In the Sioux Falls network, the first scenario showed enhanced SO and UE due to increased AV presence and enhanced system operator management. Conversely, the second and third scenarios, with increased AVs and subsequent capacity increments, displayed reduced UE and SO results. Despite the decline in UE and SO, traffic flow assignment and overall network accessibility improved. These findings highlight the positive correlation between AV presence, network capacity, and enhanced accessibility. The study underscores the potential benefits of AV integration in optimizing transportation networks and improving overall accessibility, albeit with nuances in capacity adjustments impacting traffic flow dynamics. Further research avenues could explore complex traffic flow scenarios and delve into more specific optimization strategies.

Introduction

Autonomous vehicles (AVs) are vehicles that can cover all aspects of driving in any environmental condition. According to Litman's research, the use of AVs started before 2020, and the expansion of their use will probably be realized in 20401. AVs promise a fundamental change in transportation. Travel is expected to be safer, cheaper, easier, and more sustainable through the use of AVs, and as a result, travel costs will also decrease2,3. According to estimations, AVs will have a special place in urban and intercity transportation in the next ten years. It is clear that with the application of these vehicles and their positioning, the planning horizons for the coming years will change. Modeling tools give researchers the possibility of impact measurement in transportation networks and make it possible to understand the future better. Among the effects of AVs, increasing safety, reducing fuel consumption, and creating a happier and more active life for people can be mentioned. The development of AVs can also be imagined under the influence of the desire of large companies to invest and take over the market share.

AVs can identify their surroundings and move safely alone or with little assistance4,5. Different autonomy levels are envisioned for such vehicles6,7. AVs make it possible for those who are unable or unwilling to drive to move by themselves without needing a driver. These people include the disabled and elderly, or young people without a certificate. As a result of this capability, more destinations are available to these groups and the number of trips they can make will increase8. On the one hand, cheap trips and the competition created between shared and private vehicles provide the opportunity to access more distant destinations, including the suburbans, for this group of users9. Studies in the field of people’s desire to use AVs in different categories indicate that the degree of desire depends on factors such as gender, income, age, etc.10. On the other hand, shared AVs provide the possibility of multiple trips at a low cost and without worrying about the costs of owning a vehicle (such as depreciation, insurance and taxes, and repairs)11. In addition, it is possible for the passengers of such vehicles to do other activities unrelated to driving. Such an approach will certainly cause more users to favor such vehicles, and as a result, it will lead a wave of people to use such vehicles12.

Each vehicle can benefit from information obtained from other vehicles in its vicinity, especially information about traffic congestion and safety hazards. Vehicular communication systems use vehicles and roadside units as communication nodes in a peer-to-peer network and provide information to each other13. In a cooperative approach, vehicular communication systems can cooperate with all vehicles to be more effective. According to a study conducted by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, vehicular communication systems can prevent up to 79% of traffic accidents14.

Significant research has supported both the potential benefits of AVs in enhancing travel efficiency and the possibility of increased travel demand resulting from their adoption. AVs are equipped with communication systems that allow them to communicate with other AVs and roadside units to provide them with information about the road or traffic congestion. In addition, scientists believe that the future will be accompanied by computer programs that will manage each private vehicle as it passes through the intersection. This type of connection can replace traffic lights and stop signs. These types of features also create and develop the ability of AVs to cooperate with other services (such as intersection computer systems) in the AV market. This issue can lead to creation of a network of AVs that all use the same network and the information in that network. Finally, the application of this problem can lead to more use of AVs in the network because the information is verified by the use of other AVs. Such movements strengthen the value of the network, and these movements are called external factors of the network15.

Thursday, April 18, 2024

About civil engineering

Civil engineers design, build, and maintain the foundation for our modern society – our buildings, roads and bridges, drinking water and energy systems, sea ports and airports, and the infrastructure for a cleaner environment, to name just a few.

The Augusta Canal initiated a transformation of the economy of the agrarian South by using civil engineering principles to create manufacturing capacity in a previously less developed region. It directly initiated this transformation in Augusta and thus provided a successful example that numerous other Southern cities subsequently followed.

The Augusta Canal was a bold economic development enterprise begun in 1844 that created the first multi-user, multi-purpose, industrial district in the agrarian South. It transformed the City of Augusta, Georgia and ultimately the entire region from a strictly agrarian economy to a more diversified employment base including manufacturing. Numerous civil engineers participated in its design and construction including William Phillips of Augusta and John Edgar Thomson, the latter of whom was later renowned as President of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Water power – The Augusta Canal promoters sought to establish a new cotton textile manufacturing industry close to the source of raw cotton, based on engineered water power. By the 1880s the Augusta industrial complex was a marvel of engineering industrial success that inspired the development of similar large-scale textile manufacturing based on water power across the southern region of the United States from Virginia to Alabama.
Water supply – To furnish an abundant supply of pure water for the City, the Augusta Canal Water Works was a pioneering work of settling, filter, and clear water basins. A canal water turbine-powered pumping station lifted finished water to a cast iron elevated tank which then supplied sixteen miles of cast iron distribution pipes in the City.
Transportation – Finally, the Augusta Canal was also built to accommodate the trade boats of the upper Savannah River knowns as Petersburg Boats. It allowed these boats to bypass river rapids through a seven-mile canal and terminated at wharfs in the industrial district along a cul-de-sac-like turning basin. The navigation lock included a unique counter-weighted, portcullis-style, guard lock gate on the upstream end that both admitted boats and guarded against the entrance of floods.

It was the first canal in the United States built for these three purposes and the only one that is still operated for all of its original purposes.

Visiting the landmark

Augusta Canal and Industrial District

The Augusta Canal National Heritage Area, managed by the National Park Service, provides trails, trailheads, and interpretive information along the seven-mile canal. The Augusta Canal Discovery Center at Enterprise Mill, 1450 Greene Street in Augusta provides interpretive displays about the construction, operation, and significance of the canal for an entry fee. A variety of boat tours are available.

AugustaCanalPlaque

Civil engineering

Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles for solving the problems of society, and its history is intricately linked to advances in the understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a broad profession, including several specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environmental science, mechanics, project management, and other fields.[6]

Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads, and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.[7]

One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes' principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.

Civil engineering profession

See also: History of structural engineering

Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practice of civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley civilization, and Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, creating a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing.

Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same occupation, and often used interchangeably.[9] The construction of pyramids in Egypt (c. 2700–2500 BC) were some of the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system in modern-day Iran (the oldest is older than 3000 years and longer than 71 kilometres (44 mi),[10]) the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447–438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC)[11] and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams and roads.

In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering.[4] In 1747, the first institution for the teaching of civil engineering, the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées was established in France; and more examples followed in other European countries, like Spain.[12] The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton, who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse.[3][11] In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.

Education

Main article: Civil engineer

Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering. The length of study is three to five years, and the completed degree is designated as a bachelor of technology, or a bachelor of engineering. The curriculum generally includes classes in physics, mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. After taking basic courses in most sub-disciplines of civil engineering, they move on to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines at advanced levels. While an undergraduate degree (BEng/BSc) normally provides successful students with industry-accredited qualification, some academic institutions offer post-graduate degrees (MEng/MSc), which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest.[19]

Surveying students with professor at the Helsinki University of Technology in the late 19th century.

Practicing engineers[edit]

In most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification, and a professional body certifies the degree program. After completing a certified degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements including work experience and exam requirements before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated as a professional engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), a chartered engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), a chartered professional engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or a European engineer (in most countries of the European Union). There are international agreements between relevant professional bodies to allow engineers to practice across national borders.

The benefits of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada, "only a licensed professional engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients."[20] This requirement is enforced under provincial law such as the Engineers Act in Quebec.[21] No such legislation has been enacted in other countries including the United Kingdom. In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Almost all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics which all members must abide by.[22]

Engineers must obey contract law in their contractual relationships with other parties. In cases where an engineer's work fails, they may be subject to the law of tort of negligence, and in extreme cases, criminal charges.[23] An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and environmental law.

Sub-disciplines.

There are a number of sub-disciplines within the broad field of civil engineering. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to design grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, dams, electric and communications supply. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Site engineers spend time visiting project sites, meeting with stakeholders, and preparing construction plans. Civil engineers apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction.

International Research Award on Civil and Environmental Engineering

Monday, April 29, 2024

Structural engineering

Municipal or urban engineering[edit]

Water resources engineering[edit]

Civil engineering systems[edit]

Tuesday, April 23, 2024

Transportation network

Modeling the effect of autonomous vehicles (AVs) on the accessibility of the transportation network

Abstract

Introduction

Thursday, April 18, 2024

About civil engineering

About civil engineering

Civil engineers design, build, and maintain the foundation for our modern society – our buildings, roads and bridges, drinking water and energy systems, sea ports and airports, and the infrastructure for a cleaner environment, to name just a few.

Visiting the landmark

Civil engineering

Civil engineering profession

Education

Sub-disciplines.

Changes in selenium bioavailability in selenium

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